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Many of these answers will come from psychologists of various fields comparing notes and compiling existing observations under a content-general inconsistency compensation framework – with a common nomenclature and common understanding of the core motivational phenomenon. From there, a unitary, discipline-straddling account of inconsistency compensation can uncover the true boundaries of this phenomenon, as well as compensation behaviors that have yet to find a disciplinary label. The formal application of cognitive dissonance theory to clinical intervention has been proposed by Cooper and colleagues (Cooper & Axsom, 1982). Dissonance was theorized by Festinger (1957) as an aversive motivation that will stimulate actions designed to re-establish homeostasis in the organism. In dissonance theory, a person’s expenditure of effort on a task may cause dissonance, which then may be reduced by enhancing cognitions supporting the value of the effort expenditure. Cooper and Axsom (1982) suggest that effort justification is a common ingredient in psychotherapy.

1 Dissociation as a mean to prevent and reduce cognitive dissonance

However, identification of the relationship may also be difficult, as two elements may be dissonant in one context, but not in another (Festinger, 1962). Dissonance can arise from many sources, including, but not limited to, logical inconsistency, cultural differences, contradictions between specific opinions and their related general stand, and a disconfirmation of a past experience to a current situation (Westmeyer, 2012). The is a case when a pair of cognitive elements does not imply anything concerning one another. Once again, it can be challenging to deduce such a relationship because two elements may be indirectly linked.

• Heider’s balance theory posits that perceivers prefer similarly evaluated people and things also to belong together.
• Research has shown that when an individual engages in behaviors that are inconsistent with their attitude or belief (e.g., arguing a counter-attitudinal position on a topic), a change in attitude is produced that is consistent in the direction of his or her behavior.
• Dissonance theory and self-perception theory are not necessarily mutually exclusive; several studies suggest that both processes can and do occur but under different conditions.
• Evaluate the role of factors like self-efficacy, motivation, cognitive dissonance, and social influence in behavior change.

The functional architecture of human motivation: Personality systems interactions theory

This difference between the two studies may be due to the difference between experimental paradigms (or timing of brain scans). In van Veen’s study, participants expressed their counterattitudinal opinions during the scanning, and therefore, the participants had no explicit opportunity to reduce their felt dissonance during this task. In contrast, in the cognitive dissonance and addiction Izuma study, during the second rating task, participants perceived the discrepancy between their preference and past choice behaviors, while rating their preference for each item again. Thus, they had an opportunity to reduce cognitive dissonance by reporting their new preference. Heider’s balance theory posits that perceivers prefer similarly evaluated people and things also to belong together. Most prominently, Festinger’scognitive dissonance theory holds that people seek consistency among the cognitions relevant to their attitudes, including their cognitions about their own behavior.

Eating meat

This theory proposed that people attempt to maintain consistency among their beliefs, attitudes, and behaviours. According to this theory, a motivational state termed cognitive dissonance is produced whenever beliefs, attitudes, and behaviours are inconsistent. Cognitive dissonance is considered to be an aversive state that triggers mechanisms to bring cognitions back into a consistent relationship with one another.

Therapy analog studies by Heesaker, Petty, and Cacioppo (1983) have provided support for this general line of reasoning. Commitment is an important determinant both of cognitive dissonance and of self-perception (see earlier discussion of Bem’s 1972 conception). As an illustration, a friend may suggest to a person that it would be helpful if the person helps with the political campaign of a candidate in a local election.

• We prefer consistency to inconsistency and work hard to maintain (or restore) consistency among our cognitions.
• While social approval (A) and observing others (D) can indirectly influence behavior through subjective norms, the intention to act remains the strongest predictor in this theory.
• A smoker who knows that smoking is bad for health will experience dissonance, which causes mental discomfort, because the habit of smoking and the knowledge of how harmful smoking is are conflicting.
• Hence, the person may conclude that he or she “must really like the candidate.” Each of these conceptions may be viable in various arenas when people take actions that are counter attitudinal in nature.
• Once the subjects had done the tasks, the experimenters asked some subjects to speak with another new subject about the tasks.
• Negative emotion was another concept that has been closely invested with cognitive dissonance.
• In addition, some leaders keep believers so busy they have no time to think or check anything, let alone make outside relationships through which they might gather information about the world.

The concept of dissonance is predominantly related to the post-decision or post-purchase situation (Oliver, 2009). The research on this phase commonly focused on the impacts of post-purchase touchpoints on product or service evaluation (Cohen & Goldberg, 1970), satisfaction (Engel, 1963) intention to repurchase (Hunt, 1970) and the back-out rate (Donnelly & Ivancevich, 1970) of customers. Negative emotion was another concept that has been closely invested with cognitive dissonance. Some studies also investigated moderators, such as income and product involvement (Gbadamosi, 2009), on consumer decision making.

• Next, participants define and label the thin ideal, and discuss the origins of the thin ideal and other standards of beauty that have been held through history, and how messages of the thin ideal are conveyed (e.g., through the media) and maintained.
• To reduce this dissonance, they may seek out new information that overrides the belief that greenhouse gasses contribute to global warming.
• Later research documented that only conflicting cognitions that threaten individuals’ positive self-image cause dissonance (Greenwald & Ronis, 1978).
• Conversely, experimental framing of human–animal similarity has been shown to increase moral concern for animals and human outgroups simultaneously 31.

More specifically, the theory explains how rewards affect attitudes and behaviours and how behaviours and motivations affect cognitions and perceptions (Harmon-Jones & Harmon-Jones, 2007). Although the concepts of harmony and conflict were not new and had been proposed earlier by Heider (Heider, 1946), Cognitive Dissonance theory made a major contribution to the concept of consistency (Cooper, 2007). The theory is different compared to other consistency theories as it defines dissonance and consonance in relation to a specific cognition, which usually is related to a behaviour (Harmon-Jones & Harmon-Jones, 2007).

Based on this intellectual tradition, Festinger was able to predict the magnitude of dissonance in different situations. In studying “Theories of Attitude and Behavior Change” for the MCAT, you should learn to understand key models such as the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), Transtheoretical Model, Social Cognitive Theory, and the Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM). Analyze how these frameworks explain the development, reinforcement, and modification of attitudes and behaviors. Evaluate the role of factors like self-efficacy, motivation, cognitive dissonance, and social influence in behavior change.

It is evident that the participants actively selected media that aligns with their beliefs rather than opposing media. In this type of situation, people can change their beliefs, their attitudes, or their behaviors. Some individuals hold power by virtue of expertise or information (French and Raven), evoking internalization (privately held beliefs; Kelman) in those they influence. More generally, persuasive arguments theory (Burnstein) describes how groups polarize shared opinions, compared to individuals, when they receive novel supporting information. Moreover, minority influence (Moscovici) within groups operates partly through minorities’ conviction provoking majorities to systematically process their arguments. Like theories of attitudes and social perception, theories of self-perception emphasize coherence.